The facial anatomy of dogs has changed from that of wolves during thousands of years of evolution.
Dogs have evolved their “sad eyes” facial expression in order to help them get on better with humans, according to new research.
Scientists at the University of Portsmouth carried out a study comparing the anatomy and behaviour of dogs and wolves.
Their results suggest that the facial structure of dogs has changed during thousands of years specifically to enable them to communicate with humans.
A university spokesman said: “Researchers found that the facial musculature of both species was similar, except above the eyes.
“Dogs have a small muscle, which allows them to intensely raise their inner eyebrow, which wolves do not.
“The authors suggest that the inner eyebrow-raising movement triggers a nurturing response in humans because it makes the dogs’ eyes appear larger, more infant-like and also resembles a movement humans produce when they are sad.
Psychologist Dr Juliane Kaminski, who led the research which is published in the American journal PNAS, said: “The evidence is compelling that dogs developed a muscle to raise the inner eyebrow after they were domesticated from wolves.
“We also studied dogs’ and wolves’ behaviour and, when exposed to a human for two minutes, dogs raised their inner eyebrows more and at higher intensities than wolves.
“The findings suggest that expressive eyebrows in dogs may be a result of humans’ unconscious preferences that influenced selection during domestication.
“When dogs make the movement, it seems to elicit a strong desire in humans to look after them.
“This would give dogs that move their eyebrows more a selection advantage over others and reinforce the ‘puppy dog eyes’ trait for future generations.”
Dr Kaminski’s previous research showed that dogs moved their eyebrows significantly more when humans were looking at them compared to when they were not looking at them.
Lead anatomist Professor Anne Burrows, at Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, USA, co-author of the paper, said: “To determine whether this eyebrow movement is a result of evolution, we compared the facial anatomy and behaviour of these two species and found the muscle that allows for the eyebrow raise in dogs was, in wolves, a scant, irregular cluster of fibres.
“The raised inner eyebrow movement in dogs is driven by a muscle which doesn’t consistently exist in their closest living relative, the wolf.
“This is a striking difference for species separated only 33,000 years ago and we think that the remarkably fast facial muscular changes can be directly linked to dogs’ enhanced social interaction with humans.”
The university spokesman said the only dog species in the study that did not have the muscle was the Siberian husky, which is among more ancient dog breeds.
BIRMINGHAM, Ala. (AP) — It may take Josef Newgarden some time to regain the trust of his fellow IndyCar drivers and he knows it.
Two days after Newgarden's season-opening win at St. Petersburg, Florida, was wiped off the board for manipulating the push-to-pass system on his car, the popular driver featured on the “100 Days to Indy” show is grappling with the hit to his reputation. It's also a contract year for Newgarden with a potential big payday awaiting.
The two-time series champion and reigning Indianapolis 500 winner was disqualified from the race — along with fellow Team Penske driver Scott McLaughlin — on Wednesday, though both are eligible for Sunday's race at Barber Motorsports Park and races the rest of the season. Newgarden knows it may take time to convince his peers he's not a cheater.
“Certainly not going to come from words,” he said Friday during a news conference to discuss the disqualification. “It’s just going to take repetitive action. That’s all you can do is just repetitive action and hopefully I can stand on that in the future. However long the takes, how many years, if I’m given the time, I’ll just try to earn it through action.”
Other drivers were skeptical of Newgarden's contention that he unknowingly broke the rules. Newgarden said he did use the push-to-pass at St. Petersburg but incorrectly thought it was allowed on restarts.
Andretti Global driver Colton Herta, who gained a third-place finish at St. Pete following the disqualifications, said he could accept that as a one-time mistake.
“But what’s not possible is to go to Long Beach with the intent to use it again,” Herta said. IndyCar said the manipulation wasn’t discovered until the pre-race warmup in Long Beach, California, nearly six weeks after the opener.
Defending series champion Alex Palou said he can relate to having fellow drivers regard you with distrust. He was sued by McLaren Racing (now Arrow McLaren) after changing his mind and staying at Chip Ganassi Racing in 2022.
"I think the toughest part is when you see the other teams and other drivers and they look at you differently," Palou said. "That’s the hardest thing, especially when there are so many people and everybody looks at you the same way. And it’s repeatedly, constantly. So they keep on reminding you without saying anything. I think that’s the toughest part. It’s not the end of the world. It’s bad but nobody killed anybody.”
Herta believes the situation also reflects on Team Penske, not just Newgarden. The head of the team is Roger Penske, the owner of IndyCar and one of the most respected leaders in the history of motorsports. The 87-year-old Penske earlier this week texted The Associated Press: “I am embarrassed.”
“At the end of the day it’s Penske,” Herta said. “The drivers, even though they took advantage of it and it’s wrong, it shouldn’t have even been in the car to begin with.”
Herta's Andretti teammate, Marcus Ericsson, said he is trying to give Newgarden the benefit of the doubt.
“I like to believe the best of people so I don’t believe they did anything on purpose,” Ericsson said. "But what is strange to me is that it didn’t get noticed when it happened and especially after it happened when they looked back at the race, when they looked back at the data and when they looked back at the videos. That’s why it’s surprising that nobody noticed.
“That’s the strange part.”
Romain Grosjean, a veteran Formula 1 driver who joined IndyCar in 2021, shrugged off the controversy.
“I haven’t lost any respect for them,” Grosjean said. “They tried, they got caught and move on.”
AP IndyCar: https://apnews.com/hub/indycar
FILE _ Will Power, of Australia, talks with a crew member following practice for the Indianapolis 500 auto race at Indianapolis Motor Speedway, Monday, May 22, 2023, in Indianapolis. Power said Thursday, April 25, 2024, he was unaware of any manipulations to Team Penske’s push-to-power system until after last weekend’s IndyCar race at Long Beach and never illegally used the mechanism.. Power finished fourth and while his result was not thrown out, he was docked 10 points and all three Penske drivers were fined $25,000. (AP Photo/Darron Cummings, File)
Chip Ganassi Racing driver Scott Dixon, left, is sprayed by Chip Ganassi Racing driver Álex Palou, right, after winning the IndyCar Grand Prix of Long Beach auto race Sunday, April 21, 2024, in Long Beach, Calif. (AP Photo/Ryan Sun)
Team Penske driver Josef Newgarden races during a qualifying session for the IndyCar Grand Prix of Long Beach auto race Saturday, April 20, 2024, in Long Beach, Calif. (AP Photo/Ryan Sun)
FILE - Team Penske driver Josef Newgarden, center, celebrates his first place finish along with second place finisher Arrow McLaren driver Pato O'Ward of Mexico, left, and third place finisher Team Penske driver Scott McLaughlin of New Zealand in the IndyCar Grand Prix of St. Petersburg auto race, Sunday, March 10, 2024, in St. Petersburg, Fla. Team Penske suffered a humiliating disqualification Wednesday, April 24, when reigning Indianapolis 500 winner Josef Newgarden was stripped of his victory in the season-opening race for manipulating his push-to-pass system. Penske teammate Scott McLaughlin, who finished third in the opener on the downtown streets of St. Petersburg, Florida, was also disqualified. (AP Photo/Mike Carlson)
Reigning Indianapolis 500 champion Josef Newgarden talks in Birmingham, Ala., Friday, April 26, 2024, about his recent disqualification in the season-opening IndyCar auto race. Newgarden is preparing for Sunday's race at Birmingham's Barber Motorsports Park. (AP Photo/John Zenor)
Reigning Indianapolis 500 champion Josef Newgarden talks in Birmingham, Ala., Friday, April 26, 2024, about his recent disqualification in the season-opening IndyCar auto race. Newgarden is preparing for Sunday's race at Birmingham's Barber Motorsports Park. (AP Photo/John Zenor)
FILE - Team Penske driver Josef Newgarden, right, celebrates his victory with team owner Roger Penske after the IndyCar Grand Prix of St. Petersburg auto race, Sunday, March 10, 2024, in St. Petersburg, Fla. Team Penske suffered a humiliating disqualification Wednesday, April 24, when reigning Indianapolis 500 winner Josef Newgarden was stripped of his victory in the season-opening race for manipulating his push-to-pass system. Penske teammate Scott McLaughlin, who finished third in the opener on the downtown streets of St. Petersburg, Florida, was also disqualified. (AP Photo/Mike Carlson, File)
