In Wyoming, the Eastern Shoshone tribe decided to classify buffalo as wildlife. Here is why

Jason Baldes drove down a dusty, sagebrush highway earlier this month, pulling 11 young buffalo in a trailer from Colorado to the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming. His blue truck has painted on the side a drawing of buffalo and a calf.

As the executive director of the Wind River Buffalo Initiative and Eastern Shoshone tribal member, Baldes has helped grow the number of buffalo on the reservation for the last decade. The latest count: the Northern Arapaho tribe have 97 and the Eastern Shoshone have 118.

“Tribes have an important role in restoring buffalo for food sovereignty, culture and nutrition, but also for overall bison recovery,” he said.

EDITOR'S NOTE: This story is a collaboration between The Associated Press and Grist.

The Eastern Shoshone this month voted to classify buffalo as wildlife instead of livestock as a way to treat them more like elk or deer rather than like cattle. Because the two tribes share the same land base, the Northern Arapaho are expected to vote on the distinction as well. The vote indicates a growing interest to both restore buffalo on the landscape and challenge the relationship between animal and product. Tribes tend to say buffalo while scientists use bison to describe the animal.

While climate change isn’t the main driver behind the push to restore buffalo's wildlife status, the move could bring positive effects to the fight against global warming. Climate change is shrinking Wyoming’s glaciers, contributing to drought, and increasing wildfires. Like cows, buffalo emit methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, by belching, though it’s not clear if buffalo give off the same levels.

Those emissions contribute to climate change, but what buffalo bring in increased biodiversity can promote drought resilience and some buffalo herds have been shown to help store carbon.

Baldes argues buffalo should be able to roam on the plains to bolster biodiversity and restore ecological health of the landscape — but that has to come with a change in relationship.

“Buffalo as wildlife allows the animals to exist on the landscape,” Baldes said. “Rather than livestock based on economic and Western paradigms.”

Wildlife is broadly defined as all living organisms, like plants and animals that exist outside the direct control of humans. When it comes to how different states define wildlife, it can vary. But in general, animals that are not domesticated — as in selectively bred for human consumption or companionship — are typically classified as wildlife.

“Bison have a complex history since their near extinction over 100 years ago,” said Lisa Shipley, a professor at Washington State University who studies management of wild ungulates, which are large mammals with hooves, including buffalo.

During the expansion of settlers, a combination of overhunting, habitat destruction, and government policy aimed at killing Indigenous peoples' food supplies eradicated the animal. Around 8 million buffalo were in the United States in 1870, and then in the span of 20 years there were less than 500.

Today, in North America there are roughly 20,000 wild plains bison — like the ones Baldes works to put on the Wind River. But most reside in privately owned operations, where many are raised for the growing bison meat industry. In 2023, around 85,000 bison were processed for meat consumption in the U.S., compared to the 36 million head of cattle. It’s not a lot compared to cattle, but some producers see buffalo as an interesting new addition to the global meat market.

The numbers are similar for other kinds of wildlife — there are typically more livestock on the land than wildlife. According to one study, if all the livestock of the world were weighed, the livestock would be 30 times heavier than the weight of all the wildlife.

Reducing the world’s collective reliance on cows — a popular variety of livestock — is seen by many as a path forward to combating climate change. Eating less beef and dairy products can be good for the planet; cows account for around 10% of greenhouse gas emissions. And having too many cows on a small patch of pasture can have negative effects on the environment, causing soil erosion and affecting the amount of carbon the land can absorb.

Buffalo are good to have on a landscape because they tend to move around if given enough room. One study found that cattle spent half their time grazing, while buffalo only around a quarter of the time — buffalo even moved faster and had an affinity for more varieties of grasses to munch on. Still, even buffalo can damage the landscape if they are managed like cattle.

“Too many animals on the landscape can lead to rangeland degradation and health concerns,” said Justin Binfet, wildlife management coordinator for Wyoming Game and Fish Department. The state has classified the buffalo as both livestock and wildlife, which means they can be privately owned or managed in conservation herds. However, different places in the state have different rules regarding the animal. Currently, Wyoming issues around 70 buffalo hunting tags a year.

The National Park Service manages the oldest untouched population of buffalo in Yellowstone National Park, which includes portions of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho. Montana has sued park officials over their buffalo management plan, citing potential negative effects as the park grows the herd and aims to let the buffalo push the boundaries in the park like other wildlife do.

The Montana Stockgrowers Association – a group that advocates for the sale of beef – said the Yellowstone management plan for buffalo “did not adequately represent all management options that should be considered” like more population control and increased tribal hunting.

Ranchers in Wyoming and Montana, including tribal members who raise cattle, often cite the disease brucellosis as a reason to keep buffalo and cattle strictly away from each other. The management plan for buffalo says that there has not been a recorded case of bison-to-cattle disease.

Wyoming has a history of contesting tribal hunting rights. In a 2019 U.S. Supreme Court case, Herrera vs. Wyoming, the court ruled in favor of treaty-protected hunting rights within the state. But how this history will intersect with buffalo’s classification as wildlife remains to be seen.

On the Wind River Reservation, the tribes have control of wildlife management and hunting regulations. The choice to designate buffalo as wildlife is a matter of tribal sovereignty.

For Baldes, he wants to eventually hunt buffalo like someone would any other wildlife. He’s in the process of buying property to allow buffalo to roam like they did before the arrival of settlers. He doesn’t like when people call the Wind River Buffalo Initiative a "ranch," because it has too much of an association with cows and cattle. He says buffalo should be treated as they were before settler contact.

“Bringing the buffalo back is about our relationship with them, not domination over them,” Baldes said.

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Three buffaloes rest in the the Eastern Shoshone Buffalo Enclosure on Friday, April 11, 2025, on the Wind River Reservation near Morton, Wyo. (AP Photo/Amber Baesler)

A newly released buffalo wanders in the Eastern Shoshone Buffalo Enclosure on Friday, April 11, 2025, on the Wind River Reservation near Morton, Wyo. (AP Photo/Amber Baesler)

Newly relocated buffalo integrate with part of the herd during a buffalo release at the Eastern Shoshone Buffalo Enclosure on Friday, April 11, 2025, on the Wind River Reservation near Morton, Wyo. (AP Photo/Amber Baesler)

Big Wind Singers Lyle Oldman, from left, Wayland Bonatsie and Jake Hill perform a Sun Dance song during the buffalo release at the Eastern Shoshone Buffalo Enclosure on Friday, April 11, 2025, on the Wind River Reservation near Morton, Wyo. (AP Photo/Amber Baesler)

Beadwork, with the likeness of a buffalo, dangles from a rearview mirror in a vehicle used by the Wind River Tribal Buffalo Initiative during the buffalo release at the Eastern Shoshone Buffalo Enclosure on Friday, April 11, 2025, on the Wind River Reservation near Morton, Wyo. (AP Photo/Amber Baesler)

Oakley Boycott, left, embraces Ori Downer, 8, during the buffalo release at the Eastern Shoshone Buffalo Enclosure on Friday, April 11, 2025, on the Wind River Reservation near Morton, Wyo. (AP Photo/Amber Baesler)

A buffalo, relocated from the Soapstone Prairie in Colorado, wanders in its new home at the Eastern Shoshone Buffalo Enclosure, Friday, April 11, 2025, on the Wind River Reservation near Morton, Wyo. (AP Photo/Amber Baesler)

A buffalo approaches Wade LeBeau and Jake Hill, right, during the buffalo release at the Eastern Shoshone Buffalo Enclosure, Friday, April 11, 2025, on the Wind River Reservation near Morton, Wyo. (AP Photo/Amber Baesler)

DUBAI, United Arab Emirates (AP) — U.S. President Donald Trump said Iran wants to negotiate with Washington after his threat to strike the Islamic Republic over its bloody crackdown on protesters, a move coming as activists said Monday the death toll in the nationwide demonstrations rose to at least 544.

Iran had no immediate reaction to the news, which came after the foreign minister of Oman — long an interlocutor between Washington and Tehran — traveled to Iran this weekend. It also remains unclear just what Iran could promise, particularly as Trump has set strict demands over its nuclear program and its ballistic missile arsenal, which Tehran insists is crucial for its national defense.

Meanwhile Monday, Iran called for pro-government demonstrators to head to the streets in support of the theocracy, a show of force after days of protests directly challenging the rule of 86-year-old Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. Iranian state television aired chants from the crowd, who shouted “Death to America!” and “Death to Israel!”

Trump and his national security team have been weighing a range of potential responses against Iran including cyberattacks and direct strikes by the U.S. or Israel, according to two people familiar with internal White House discussions who were not authorized to comment publicly and spoke on condition of anonymity.

“The military is looking at it, and we’re looking at some very strong options,” Trump told reporters on Air Force One on Sunday night. Asked about Iran’s threats of retaliation, he said: “If they do that, we will hit them at levels that they’ve never been hit before.”

Trump said that his administration was in talks to set up a meeting with Tehran, but cautioned that he may have to act first as reports of the death toll in Iran mount and the government continues to arrest protesters.

“I think they’re tired of being beat up by the United States,” Trump said. “Iran wants to negotiate.”

He added: “The meeting is being set up, but we may have to act because of what’s happening before the meeting. But a meeting is being set up. Iran called, they want to negotiate.”

Iran through country's parliamentary speaker warned Sunday that the U.S. military and Israel would be “legitimate targets” if America uses force to protect demonstrators.

More than 10,600 people also have been detained over the two weeks of protests, said the U.S.-based Human Rights Activists News Agency, which has been accurate in previous unrest in recent years and gave the death toll. It relies on supporters in Iran crosschecking information. It said 496 of the dead were protesters and 48 were with security forces.

With the internet down in Iran and phone lines cut off, gauging the demonstrations from abroad has grown more difficult. The Associated Press has been unable to independently assess the toll. Iran’s government has not offered overall casualty figures.

Those abroad fear the information blackout is emboldening hard-liners within Iran’s security services to launch a bloody crackdown. Protesters flooded the streets in the country’s capital and its second-largest city on Saturday night into Sunday morning. Online videos purported to show more demonstrations Sunday night into Monday, with a Tehran official acknowledging them in state media.

In Tehran, a witness told the AP that the streets of the capital empty at the sunset call to prayers each night. By the Isha, or nighttime prayer, the streets are deserted.

Part of that stems from the fear of getting caught in the crackdown. Police sent the public a text message that warned: “Given the presence of terrorist groups and armed individuals in some gatherings last night and their plans to cause death, and the firm decision to not tolerate any appeasement and to deal decisively with the rioters, families are strongly advised to take care of their youth and teenagers.”

Another text, which claimed to come from the intelligence arm of the paramilitary Revolutionary Guard, also directly warned people not to take part in demonstrations.

“Dear parents, in view of the enemy’s plan to increase the level of naked violence and the decision to kill people, ... refrain from being on the streets and gathering in places involved in violence, and inform your children about the consequences of cooperating with terrorist mercenaries, which is an example of treason against the country,” the text warned.

The witness spoke to the AP on condition of anonymity due to the ongoing crackdown.

The demonstrations began Dec. 28 over the collapse of the Iranian rial currency, which trades at over 1.4 million to $1, as the country’s economy is squeezed by international sanctions in part levied over its nuclear program. The protests intensified and grew into calls directly challenging Iran’s theocracy.

Nikhinson reported from aboard Air Force One.

In this frame grab from video obtained by the AP outside Iran, a masked demonstrator holds a picture of Iran's Crown Prince Reza Pahlavi during a protest in Tehran, Iran, Friday, January. 9, 2026. (UGC via AP)

In this frame grab from footage circulating on social media from Iran shows protesters taking to the streets despite an intensifying crackdown as the Islamic Republic remains cut off from the rest of the world in Tehran, Iran, Friday, Jan. 9, 2026.(UGC via AP)

In this frame grab from footage circulating on social media from Iran showed protesters once again taking to the streets of Tehran despite an intensifying crackdown as the Islamic Republic remains cut off from the rest of the world in Tehran, Iran, Saturday Jan. 10, 2026. (UGC via AP)