Archaeological digs in Amazon provide clues about Indigenous inhabitants before colonization

MACAPA, Brazil (AP) — Paving roads in the Amazon rainforest has long brought deforestation that threatens the people who live there. The same roadwork, however, has also allowed archaeologists to get glimpses of the region’s past long before Europeans arrived to reshape it.

The construction often requires archaeological surveys before the paving starts, and some of the latest discoveries have emerged along the BR-156 highway in Brazil's northern state of Amapa. Among the findings so far from nine dig sites: pottery vases that may be funerary urns, as well as small artifacts that resemble human faces.

“What we now about the region’s past is also tied to the opening created by these projects, which gives our relationship with them a somewhat ambivalent character,” said Lúcio Flávio Costa Leite, who manages the Archaeological Research Center at Amapa’s Institute for Scientific and Technological Research. “At the same time, the knowledge we gain about these sites leads us to pay closer attention to these regions, including by adopting permanent protection measures.”

Scientists say recent research has reinforced understanding of the region's past not as a human desert, but rather as a landscape shaped by interconnected societies long before Columbus arrived. The material found along BR-156, for example, included pottery in multiple styles and techniques that reflected influences from communities ranging from Brazil’s Para state to the Caribbean.

It's been cleaned and analyzed by a team working for the National Department of Transport Infrastructure. One of the archaeologists, Manoel Fabiano da Silva Santos, said the layers of the Amazon soil he excavated are a historic timeline.

In the upper layers, he found items such as Portuguese porcelain and nails linked to European occupation.

“Digging deeper, we uncovered pottery and ceramics associated with earlier Indigenous presence, marking the site’s transition before and after the arrival of colonizers,” Santos said.

The artifacts will eventually go to Amapa's state collection, overseen by Costa Leite, which includes about 530,000 pieces. The oldest piece is around 6,140 years old, confirming a long human presence across Amapa, he said.

The artifacts offer insight into how ancient Indigenous societies lived, died and interacted with the rainforest.

“Here is something I often debate with my students -- we usually think of technology as computers and microchips,” Costa Leite said, walking through shelves of ancient pottery. “But all of this required careful reading of the landscape and deliberate choices of materials.”

One of the most impressive historic areas in Amapa is in the city of Calcoene, where a 1,000‑year‑old stone monument made up of 127 carved monoliths arranged in a circle about 30 meters (98 feet) in diameter, set in open grassland amid the rainforest and bordered by a slow river.

Some have dubbed the Archaeological Park of the Solstice the “Stonehenge of the Amazon” for its resemblance to the British monument. Researchers found that the stones were positioned so that during the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere they marked the exact point where the sun rises, said archaeologist Mariana Petry Cabral, a professor at the Federal University of Minas Gerais who was part of the team that began digging at the site some two decades ago.

“It’s hard to say exactly what all the stones mean, but what we do know is that they are not from the site itself. They were brought from other nearby locations,” she said.

Subsequent research and excavations found the site also served as a burial ground. Radiocarbon dating showed it was occupied for hundreds of years, beginning around 1,100 years ago, she said.

The site, discovered by scientists in 2005, can be visited with prior approval from Amapa’s Institute for Scientific and Technological Research. At the same time, the site is going through the process to become a national park, which will allow more people to visit.

Such archaeological sites are protected by Brazilian law, which prohibits them being altered. That adds a layer of protection for surrounding rainforest.

Modern archaeological and historical ecology research shows that Indigenous peoples not only lived in the Amazon for centuries but also shaped it. They managed and cultivated the landscape through long‑term, sustainable practices, said Eduardo Neves, an archaeologist professor at the University of Sao Paulo.

Neves has studied the Amazon rainforest for more than 30 years and, since 2023, has led the Amazon Revealed project, which uses satellite scans to identify archaeological sites hidden beneath the forest canopy.

Scans have revealed roads linking archaeological sites and buried patterns in the rainforest that point to repeated occupation and deliberate landscape modification. Together, Neves said, the features suggest large settlements.

Archaeologists had long suspected such connections, Neves added, but technology has made it possible to see their broader geographic reach. The scans show networks of roads connecting clusters of settlements across the forest, most clearly in southern Amazonas state and Acre.

“When people think of an Indigenous tribe, they often imagine a small village isolated in the middle of the forest. But evidence shows a high degree of interconnectivity linking different settlements,” Neves said.

“Amapa is a key piece that helps us see how dynamic and active these populations were, and how they maintained networks of exchange that have been in place for millennia,” Cabral said.

Felipe Campos Mello contributed reporting.

The Associated Press’ climate and environmental coverage receives financial support from multiple private foundations. AP is solely responsible for all content. Find AP’s standards for working with philanthropies, a list of supporters and funded coverage areas at AP.org.

The Archaeological Park of the Solstice, which some call the "Stonehenge of the Amazon" is visible in Calcoene, Amapa state, Brazil, Friday, March 13, 2026. (AP Photo/Eraldo Peres)

Archaeologists conduct a technical visit at the Quintela site in the Vila Nova community along the BR-156 highway in Santana, Amapa state, Brazil, Saturday, March 14, 2026. (AP Photo/Eraldo Peres)

The Archaeological Park of the Solstice, which some call the "Stonehenge of the Amazon" is visible in Calcoene, Amapa state, Brazil, Friday, March 13, 2026. (AP Photo/Eraldo Peres)

Vehicles drive on a fully paved section of BR-156 highway that connects the state capital Macapa with the city of Oiapoque, Amapa state, Brazil, Monday, March 9, 2026. (AP Photo/Eraldo Peres)

Archaeologists conduct a technical visit at the Quintela site in the Vila Nova community along the BR-156 highway in Santana, Amapa state, Brazil, Saturday, March 14, 2026. (AP Photo/Eraldo Peres)

A pottery vessel with anthropomorphic features believed to be an urn is displayed at the Institute for Scientific and Technological Research in Macapa, Amapa state, Brazil, Sunday, March 8, 2026. (AP Photo/Eraldo Peres)

Archaeologist Manoel Fabiano da Silva Santos shows an anthropomorphic artifact found at the Quintela archaeological site at the National Department of Transport Infrastructure in Macapa, Amapa state, Brazil, Saturday, March 14, 2026. (AP Photo/Eraldo Peres)

An anthropomorphic ceramic figurine found during archaeological work in a state is displayed at the Institute for Scientific and Technological Research in Macapa, Amapa state, Brazil, Sunday, March 8, 2026. (AP Photo/Eraldo Peres)

Archaeologist Lucio Flavio Costa Leite speaks about the collection of cataloged archaeological artifacts at the Institute for Scientific and Technological Research in Macapa, Amapa state, Brazil, Sunday, March 8, 2026. (AP Photo/Eraldo Peres)

Pottery vessels with anthropomorphic features believed to be urns are displayed at the Institute for Scientific and Technological Research in Macapa, Amapa state, Brazil, Sunday, March 8, 2026. (AP Photo/Eraldo Peres)

Archaeologist Manoel Fabiano da Silva Santos shows a soil layer scale while explaining the historical timeline at National Department of Transport Infrastructure in Macapa, Amapa state, Brazil, Saturday, March 14, 2026. (AP Photo/Eraldo Peres)

Archaeologists conduct a technical visit at Quintela archaeological site in the Vila Nova community along the BR-156 highway in Santana, Amapa state, Brazil, Saturday, March 14, 2026. (AP Photo/Eraldo Peres)

Grass and flowers surround the Archaeological Park of the Solstice, which some call the "Stonehenge of the Amazon" in Calcoene, Amapa state, Brazil, Friday, March 13, 2026. (AP Photo/Eraldo Peres)

PENYELADI, Indonesia (AP) — After three months with no rain, Sriwati, a shopkeeper and mother of three children living in Penyeladi village on the tropical island of Borneo, can no longer depend on the river for her needs.

Experts say communities like Sriwati’s are facing a severe water crisis as this year’s super El Niño, combined with decades of degradation of the island’s ecologically vital peatlands — ancient wetlands that are critical for carbon storage, water regulation and pollution control — has created the perfect storm exacerbating human-caused climate change.

The Kapuas, Indonesia’s longest river that over 3 million people rely on, has extremely receded in the area near her home. All that’s left is a shallow stream of muddy water that's not safe to drink or wash the rice she cooks to feed her children. She now has to buy water, adding to her monthly expenses.

“The water shortage affects us, especially when it comes to drinking water,” Sriwati, who like many Indonesians uses only one name, told The Associated Press from her small, concrete home.

El Niño is part of a natural climate cycle of warming ocean temperatures, but this year’s is expected to reach new extremes of drought, heat waves, flooding and other climate-related disruptions across the globe.

Meteorologists forecast it could exceed a record El Niño that began in 1997 and helped trigger billions of dollars in damage from heat waves, floods, droughts, tornadoes and wildfires.

In Borneo, experts say that because vast peatlands have been destroyed by land conversion, the effects of El Niño are already being more acutely felt.

“In Kalimantan, something like 60% of the peatland areas have been drained to make way for palm oil plantations and for pulp and paper concessions,” said Amanda Hurowitz, a senior director at international environmental organization Mighty Earth, using the name for the Indonesia-controlled part of Borneo.

“That means the water is not where it should be. There are all these canals, and because the canals are blocked, the water table goes low,” she continued. “Because it’s so dry, the water has just disappeared.”

In a written statement to the AP, Indonesia's Ministry of Forestry acknowledged the negative impact of drained peatlands, while insisting that specific causes and liabilities must be determined by evidence rather than attributed automatically to El Niño or the presence of businesses.

They added that the government aims to prevent future peatland degradation through ecosystem restoration and strict enforcement of concession holders’ obligations.

“The government’s long-term agenda focuses on preserving and restoring peatland hydrological functions, improving landscape and water management, strengthening fire prevention, and ensuring that all parties managing land fulfill their responsibilities,” they said.

Experts say the hot, dry conditions caused by El Niño coupled with peatland degradation have contributed to the enormous fires spreading across Borneo.

Dried peat is highly flammable, allowing fires to easily spread in drained areas. Because the fires often spread underground, they're difficult to extinguish and can easily reoccur, according to the Borneo Nature Foundation.

The dwindling water supply in the area has slowed down firefighting efforts, while Japan has deployed firefighting assistance to the island.

Toxic thick haze blankets the sky. The smoke has drifted as far as the Philippines, more than 800 kilometers (500 miles) away, and breached Malaysia’s emergency-level threshold for air pollution, forcing authorities to declare an emergency last week in a town in Sarawak state on Borneo.

In a written statement to the AP, Indonesia's Ministry of Forestry said the government is shifting its forest and land fire policy toward prevention by strengthening cross-sectoral coordination, enforcing laws against burning-based land clearing, expanding patrols and early detection systems, promoting risk-based monitoring and peatland restoration, and requiring permit holders and communities to take responsibility for fire control.

“Ultimately, controlling forest and land fires is not the task of a single ministry or institution,” they said. “Prevention requires collaborative effort.”

Indonesia’s Forestry Ministry recorded more than 202,000 hectares (499,000 acres) of burned land between January and July, almost three times the size of Singapore.

As the fires continue to burn and water remains scarce, communities continue to suffer.

In Sungai Malaya village in West Kalimantan, fires have burned for over a month, with residents remaining tense around the clock, as fires have sometimes suddenly worsened at night.

Fires have decimated the vacant lots where Rumsiyeh, a 45-year-old mother of five children, and her husband picked ferns to sell at the market.

“Everything’s gone. We can’t make a living anymore,” she said.

Boaters, fishers and others who rely on the river have had their livelihoods impacted, as extremely low water levels mean it’s impossible to fish or travel on the Kapuas. In the areas where there's enough water for boats to operate, the thick haze hampers visibility, making it dangerous to operate, fisherman Abiansah, 39, said.

And the national economic impact remains unmeasured: Large metal barges that usually carry oil palm tree kernels for processing downriver currently lie aground on the sand, as children swing from their untied mooring lines.

Some relief has come from private and government water donations, but residents still fear what the future holds.

“I’m worried about this prolonged dry spell. It’s reached the point where just going about our daily activities — going anywhere at all — has become difficult. We’re facing water shortages, too,” said Sriwati. “I’m at a loss for words to describe it.”

Milko reported from Islamabad.

The Associated Press’ climate and environmental coverage receives financial support from multiple private foundations. AP is solely responsible for all content. Find AP’s standards for working with philanthropies, a list of supporters and funded coverage areas at AP.org.

A woman carrying buckets walks with a boy along the Kapuas River amid haze in Sanggau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Saturday, Sept. 12, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)

Abiansah, a boat operator, left, talks with a man at a wooden dock along the Kapuas River amid haze in Sekadau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Saturday, Sept. 12, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)

A woman washes clothes on a floating wooden platform along the Kapuas River amid haze in Sanggau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Friday, Sept. 11, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)

A man helps a woman climb aboard a tugboat grounded on a riverbed of the Kapuas River amid a drought in Sekadau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Friday, Sept. 11, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)

People surround a barge that is stranded on a dry riverbed of the Kapuas River amid a drought in Sekadau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Friday, Sept. 11, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)

Kids play soccer near a barge stranded on a dry riverbed of the Kapuas River amid a drought in Sekadau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Friday, Sept. 11, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)

People look at a barge, back right, stranded on a dry riverbed of the Kapuas River amid a drought in Sekadau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Friday, Sept. 11, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)

A boy climbs a rope hanging from a barge stranded on a dry riverbed of the Kapuas River amid a drought in Sekadau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Friday, Sept. 11, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)

A man pilots a motorboat along the Kapuas River as a bridge is obscured by haze in Sekadau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Friday, Sept. 11, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)

A groom helps a bride step between boats on the Kapuas River amid haze in Sekadau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Saturday, Sept. 12, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)

People ride a motorcycle past peatlands damaged by wildfires in Sekadau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Saturday, Sept. 12, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)

Soldiers spray water to put out wildfires burning in peatland forest in Kubu Raya, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Saturday, Sept. 12, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)

Sriwati, a shopkeeper and mother, carries two containers filled with clean water during a drought in Sanggau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Friday, Sept. 11, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)

A resident fills their container with clean water as others wait for their turn from a tanker truck amid a drought in Sanggau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Friday, Sept. 11, 2026. (AP Photo/Tatan Syuflana)